History of Feminism
MYTHS OF GENDER HISTORY
(1) Natural/Primitive Gender Roles
-men's and women's roles were defined by natural conditions in the earliest societies, and women inevitably ended up in subordinate roles from the earliest of times
In fact, some of the most diverse and equal-power arrangements can be found in primitive hunter-gatherer and communal societies
Survival of groups mattered more than power within them
(2) Cultural Development of Women's Rights
-as civilization became more sophisticated, women's rights constantly improved because of cultural progress
In fact, many highly-developed and wealthy societies were historically the most patriarchal
The low point of women's rights is feudal, land-owning societies – marriage securing inheritance and social prestige: material basis
(3) Cultural Development of Sexual Deviance
-unconventional gender roles and sexual behaviours are products of modern civilization
In fact, there is a lot of historical evidence of both the existence and the social acceptance of alternative sexual behaviour in ancient history
The main modern development is not unconventional behaviours and thoughts, but the idea that these behaviours or thoughts is proof of deep, deviant individual identity
Feminism
Modern women's rights an issue since Renaissance and Enlightenment opened some opportunities for women
Grounded in Human Rights discourse of the 18th century
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
British writer, philosopher
A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) – attacked aristocratic ideals and social order; gender stereotypes and norms of chivalric behaviour; described an ideal society based on the self-sufficient family
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) – argued for need to extend all political and human rights to women in complete equality with men
Three waves
First-Wave Feminism
Late 19th – early 20th century
Political and civil rights
Succeeded – in Canada, voting rights from 1917, women legally confirmed as 'persons' from 1929
Not necessarily equality – but an ability and freedom to develop own talents, without subordination to men's needs and ideals (A Room of One's Own, Virginia Woolf)
Second-Wave Feminism
1960s-1980s
Full protection of civil rights, employment and other opportunities; sexual freedom, birth control and abortion rights; political representation and recognition of unique feminine perspective
Closely (but not consistently) aligned with gay rights movements – both fought for sexual liberation
Produced substantial body of academic work – Feminist theory, Queer theory
Partially succeeded – in Canada, Royal Commission on Status of Women in 1970, NAC in 1972, Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982; discrimination in all fields explicitly abolished
But women still continued to earn less than men ('glass ceiling')
Movement fragmented and broke down partially due to internal conflicts – radicalism, politicization, white middle-class identity, contentious issues such as pornography and sexual deviance
Third-Wave Feminism
1980s-today
Continuing to advance rights of women, while re-examining some of the positions of 2nd wave movements
Rejection of essentialism (the notion of 'woman' or 'feminine identity' as definable) and universalism (the view that all women have similar experiences and issues)
Diversification – exploring issues unique to women of very different cultural and economic backgrounds
Standpoints – focus not only on women and their perspectives of struggle for gender rights, but on how gender is viewed from a variety of perspectives
Broad view of gender and sex – not categories (man vs. woman, straight vs. gay) but ranges and spectra
Closer alignment with gay rights movements, intellectual movements, men's movements
Empowerment and expansion of feminist ideals through all fields of activity (including popular culture, education, etc.)
Reclamation and reversal of means of oppression – derogatory terms (e.g. SlutWalk), pornography, sex work
Continued problems – politicization, political correctness, predominance of white middle-class values, self-negation by post-feminism
Feminist Rhetoric
Not theoretically unified
-many strands of research
-many viewpoints
Common themes:
-Exposing masculine stereotypes & distortions in (popular) culture
-Discovering and studying female creativity, genres, styles, identities, etc.
-Examining social and cultural forces that shape women's lives
-Reconceptualizing women's roles and ideas
Patriarchy
-Structure of society around family units with male authority figures at the center
Masculine Hegemony
-Gender/power inequalities
-Multiple masculinities/femininities dominated by heterosexual masculinity
Gender vs. Sex
-Sex: biological distinction/role
-Gender: sociocultural distinction/role
-Masculine hegemony: oppression based on gender
Feminist aesthetic:
Argument(s) that women have their own style(s), genres, cultures, etc.
-Exploring themes of common concern for women in any field
-e.g. subculture of female writers, designers, singers etc.
-Distinctive socioeconomic/cultural characteristics of women
-How they resist patriarchally-assigned roles
-Difference in masculine and feminine writing practices
Appropriate Texts: Sites of Struggle
Cultural texts which reinforce or challenge gender norms in obvious or subtle ways
-what is (ab)normal, (in)appropriate, (un)desirable?
Readings
-blatant vs. occluded (obvious vs. hidden in subtext)
-preferred
-oppositional, subverted, inflected
-models vs. antimodels – for women and men
Oppositions
-male hero vs. female hero
-pretty, ladylike, likeable, capricious, bitchy vs. manly, strong, dominant, straightforward, macho
-assertiveness and subjectivity – very different views normal for men and women
-'boys will be boys' vs. 'girls will be girls' – taken-for-granted behaviours
-fictional worlds ~ real world
The Male Gaze
-predominance of male heroes – 'cowboy hero', 'bad guy' vs. 'object of affection'
-female characters portrayed in relation to male characters and their judgments
-women invited to see female characters (and themselves) from male perspective
-proactive positive female characters in traditionally-male roles often a 'gimmick' – intentionally odd to attract reader attention rather than challenge norms
-masculine culture often forces women to identify against themselves
-dominant cultural artifacts ignoring/misrepresenting legitimate female experiences
-encourages women to think like men; identify with male ways of thought, preferences and practifces; tolerate and become complicit in own domination
-feminism encourages women to become resisting readers, not taking representations for granted
Implications of Readings
If we are to adopt the norms or accept challenges offered by the text, what should our world be like? What should our attitudes to women be like?
What should our attitudes to men be like?
Whose perspectives are we allowed to observe women or men from?
Who should we identify with or against?
Feminist Perspectives
Liberal Feminism
-opportunities for women in male-dominated areas
-sites of struggle: depictions of women in these areas – preferred vs. oppositional readings
-how are women in these areas portrayed: normal, successful, happy vs. odd, unsuccessful, unhappy
Radical Feminism
-masculine hegemony creates women and men differently
-girls taught to look and behave 'ladylike'
-boys taught to look and behave 'like a man'
-women who act assertively called 'bitch', 'lesbian', 'feminazi' etc.
-men who act supportively or submissively called 'wimp', 'gay', etc.
-general conclusion: society conditions men as subjects of the world (active, assertive, dominant), women as objects (passive, supportive, auxiliary); male agendas at forefront
-radical feminist critique reveals unconscious causes of women's opporession
-deconstructing norms of male/female behaviour and connecting them to dominant order/objectification
-ideal woman; beautiful (sex) object; woman's work
-vs. bitchy, masculine, 'abnormal' women – can be used to support preferred readings or produce oppositional critique
Marxist Feminism
-economic equality for women
-breaking 'glass ceiling'
-women shown in powerful or disadvantaged roles in the media
-are women shown as receiving what they deserve based on skills? Do they pay for it in other ways?
Cultural Feminism
-promoting traditionally female activities that were devalued/trivialized – raising the status of traditional women's roles
-e.g. cooking, cleaning, sewing, childrearing, housekeeping, nursing or secretarial work – traditionally valued far less than male dominant positions (work outside of home; work in managerial positions)
-e.g. feminine qualities – cooperative, nurturing, emotional personality – traditionally seen as 'weak'
and proof of women's diminished responsibility and capacity to act
-what is considered appropriate and inappropriate behaviour for women (and men)?
-how did these assumptions become common sense?
-how are preferred readings repeated and rationalized in popular culture?
-cultural feminists argue that traditionally-feminine skills and personality traits should be embraced and valued by both women and men, on a level equal to traditionally-male activities
Male Feminism
-a) male advocacy of women's rights, acknowledgment of masculine hegemony as source of problem
-b) men are also subjected to unjust and unrealistic stereotyping by patriarchal society
-alternative masculinities – rejection of strong, dominant, competitive male norms as suitable for everyone
-examining and deconstructing male stereotypes
Queer Theory
-built on basis of feminist perspectives
-attacks patriarchal norms, on basis of enforced heterosexuality
-looks beyond simply gay/lesbian experiences – alternative sexualities, sex/gender as spectra
-critical examination of how homophobic/'deviant' categories develop alongside 'normal' ones
-looking at how ideas of 'normal' vs. 'deviant' are unstable
-queer theorists argue that the view of gender and sexuality as binary (male vs. female, heterosexual vs. homosexual, normal vs. deviant) is culturally-produced, but in fact unsupportable
Post-Feminism
-suggests that the efforts of current feminism have done good, but ultimately feminist views of ideal solutions to human problems are flawed
-women viewed as objects in patriarchal society – BUT would becoming subjects actually solve problems?
-subjectivity as such is extremely limited – men are conditioned just as much as women, and subject to stereotyping, injustice, and false perceptions of identity and norm
-being a subject/free individual is an illusion – 'fantasy of wholeness' driving modern society, when in fact we are constantly shaped by our connections to society, other people, and our unconscious psyche, none of which we have any personal control over
-therefore, “woman” as a social category doesn't actually matter – “subject” is a problem for us all
-men and women are not actually an oppositional
-gender is not a true identity – and the struggle over trying to assert an autonomous female gender only promotes divisions and reinforces discriminatory thinking
-particular biological/psychological tendencies that come with male/female body chemistry should not be ignored – social conditioning is not the only origin of stereotypes and behaviours
-women are not always merely coerced into traditional supporting roles and behaviours – e.g. being a mother and wife can be an intelligent, conscious choice, rather than blind acceptance of norm
-has feminism become a religion?
-has feminism become too politicized? (creation of male vs. female opposition for political gain; drawing away from common problems)
-post-feminism argues that we cannot have an essentialist and universalist view of gender; need to address common problems faced by men & women instead
