Final Essay Checklist

Your paper should be 6-8 pages long, double-spaced (2000-2500 words). It must provide an analysis of a cultural artifact (or several artifacts), using one or more of the rhetorical perspectives discussed in our course. The paper is worth 30% of your final grade, and is due on April 2nd, 2012. Your paper must be on the same topic as presented in your proposal - if you have changed your topic since, be sure that it has been approved by me (as far as I know, that is the case for everyone's papers in this class so far).

The contents of your paper should include:

• An introduction, which states your primary research questions, artifact(s) and methods. It should provide a brief outline of your paper and its main arguments.
• A description of the artifact(s) you will be using. You do not need to go in-depth when introducing your artifact, but provide some basic information on both its contents and its context. Explain what it is, when it was made, who it was made by, what it was made for, etc. Make an argument for why your artifact is valuable/interesting/worthwhile for analysis - and try to do so by connecting it to broader social issues and academic concerns.
• A brief description of the rhetorical perspective(s) and methods you will be using for your analysis. Be sure to note why you chose those methods, and explain what you expect to find in your artifact using these methods.
• ANALYSIS: the bulk of your paper should be an application of your methods to your artifact. Point out key features and explain the rhetorical structure of your artifact.
• Explain the overt and underlying messages behind your artifact. What is it really saying?
• Consider whether your artifact is an effective piece of rhetoric (i.e. effective at conveying its message, spurring people to action, changing opinions, or even simply entertaining and engaging its audience). Explain why/why not.
• You should discuss the wider implications of your artifact. Consider what it says about our world in general. What does it suggest is right/wrong about our world? What would our world be like if we adopt the beliefs and views promoted by the artifact? Why does your artifact's message matter?
• Conclusion: your paper should include a conclusion that summarizes what you have found and restates your main findings and claims.

Paper format guidelines (adapted from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/)

• You do not need to make a title page for your paper.
• In the upper left-hand corner of the first page, list your name, your instructor's name, the course, and the date. Again, be sure to use double-spaced text.
• Double space again and center the title. Do not underline, italicize, or place your title in quotation marks; write the title in Title Case (standard capitalization), not in all capital letters.
• Use quotation marks and/or italics when referring to other works in your title, just as you would in your text: Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas as Morality Play; Human Weariness in "After Apple Picking"
• Double space between the title and the first line of the text.
• Create a header in the upper right-hand corner that includes your last name, followed by a space with a page number; number all pages consecutively with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), one-half inch from the top and flush with the right margin.

• Type your paper on a computer and print it out on standard, white 8.5 x 11-inch paper.
• Double-space the text of your paper, and use a legible font. Recommended fonts are Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri. The font size should be 12 pt.
• Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks.
• Set the margins of your document to 1 inch on all sides.
• Indent the first line of paragraphs one half-inch from the left margin. MLA recommends that you use the Tab key as opposed to pushing the Space Bar five times.
• Use italics throughout your essay for the titles of longer works and, only when absolutely necessary, providing emphasis.
• If you have any endnotes, include them on a separate page before your References page. Entitle the section Notes (centered, unformatted).
• Your paper should be organized into clear paragraphs and sections. You may (but don't have to) create headings for different sections in your paper (e.g. Introduction, Methodology, Artifact(s), Analysis, Conclusion). If you do use section headings, please number them and follow the correct format as indicated here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
• You must format quotations and references to outside texts (including your textbook and artifacts) correctly. See guidelines for quotation formating here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/03/
• Your paper MUST include a Works Cited or References page. See MLA format guidelines on formatting your references list here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/05/
• You must, at minimum, cite your course textbook and artifacts that you are analyzing. If you are unsure how to cite uncommon, non-print sources (e.g. films, music, video games) - check guidelines provided here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/09/

Evaluation criteria

• The paper is worth 30% of your final grade, divided between the following three broad categories
• Expression/Format (10%): Your paper should be written clearly, cohesively, without grammatical or vocabulary errors as far as possible. Clarity and conciseness are crucial to a successful paper. Your ability to articulate your thoughts and your analysis clearly is what chiefly determines your grade in regard to expression. Your paper must be clearly and logically organized. In terms of format, you must follow guidelines that have been given above (and throughout the course) for formatting and organizing your paper. Grammatical errors, poor organization, lack of clarity, incomplete structure or format errors will result in penalties.
• Theory/Analysis (10%): In this course, you have to demonstrate your knowledge of rhetorical theory, and your ability to use it to analyze actual examples and artifacts of rhetoric. Your ability to formulate ideas in terms of the theories we have studied so far is crucial. The accuracy, coherence and completeness of your analysis (depending on the perspective you choose for your paper) is key to this part of the evaluation. Inaccurate, overly-selective or incomplete application of the rhetorical frameworks you choose will result in penalties.
• Originality/Critique (10%): Your ability to demonstrate critical thinking is just as important as knowledge of theory for this class. As you choose your own artifacts and approaches, your ability to combine them effectively and creatively will be evaluated. You must maintain an analytical, academic tone and a balanced, serious perspective on your artifacts. However I am also looking for your ability to make accurate critical observations, connect your artifacts to wider social issues, and engage with your artifacts. Creative and critical thought will be rewarded. Lack of thought given to implications, underlying messages and rhetorical effectiveness of your artifacts will be penalized.

Good luck!

Remember that I am available by email for advice over the course of this weekend.

Media Effects Theory

Media Effects Theory

Research on unique influence of various media on rhetoric

-not a unified field of theory

-rhetoric of cinema

-rhetoric of print

-rhetoric of internet

-rhetoric of video games

etc.

-not very practical on its own, but combines well with other types of analysis

Media choices vs. audience beliefs/norms

-dialectic relationship: both influence each other

-different rhetorical strategies to deliver same messages: communication as choice

-why are particular media types chosen?

-how does the media type itself fit into popular culture?

Media effects:

-media logic

-social learning theory

-parasocial relationships

-cultivation theory

Marshal McLuhan (1911-1980)

Canadian rhetorician and philosopher

“The medium is the message” (1964)

-media usually carry content

-but no content required to have a rhetorical/creative effect

-for example: electricity is a medium; it can carry messages (e.g. network signals) or simply energy

-a lightbulb: uses electricity; itself is a medium without a message

-however it still radically changes our life: lightbulbs create environments, allow certain activities to conveniently take place at night

-can also carry messages in some cases – e.g. a signal lamp

-TV: comes with content, delivers rhetoric

-however, the very presence of TV is perhaps more important than any specific messages on it

-defines our home environments, places information and entertainment at the dinner table

-internet/social media: a lot of (fairly useless) content, but the capacity for anyone to post anything at any time is extremely significant

Media logic

-the degree to which the audience takes the medium for granted

-taken-for-granted media permits a degree higher degree of influence

-unmarked messages don't raise alarm, allow for easy discussion

-Altheide and Snow (1979): TV is the dominant medium

-obviously, things have changed since: multimedia society; digital society

-computers, phones, mp3 players; social networking, youtube, blogging, gaming

-recent inventions; but largely taken for granted

-old technology:

-rotary phones

-black-and-white TV

-tape-operated computers

-answering machines

-what do we notice about the world in media that we're exposed to?

-normal vs. abnormal, right vs. wrong, desirable vs. undesirable, modern vs. obsolete

-marked vs. unmarked: tech we expect to see vs. silly/outdated technology

Commodification

-advertisement blending with programming

-includes product placement (perhaps the most typical method of commodification)

-TV/radio commodified from the beginning: commercials

-old TV: few channels, no product placement = long ads during breaks

-new TV: many channels = shorter ads, more breaks, more product placement

-ads blending with programming: ads often no longer about the products; ads themselves turned into a form of entertainment

-ads and norms: product placement and stylized ads portray products and situations as desirable/taken-for-granted:

-apparel, products, hairstyles, behaviours

Amplification and Reduction

-What is shown and what is not shown

-Reality: advertisement budgets support media

-TV industry competes for viewers/ratings; magazines compete for subscriptions

-as a result, features on TV and in magazines such as the news stories may vary

-not a complete story: some things are shown (amplified), others are avoided (reduced)

-news stories: war

-entertainment: radio play; TV show cancellations

-normal, good, right: media and market values

-what sells?

-ideal vs. undesirable: gender and body norms

-portrayals of “non-ideal” characters on TV – body types, sexuality

Social Learning Theory

-Bandura (1977) – a controversial theory that links media exposure to development of behaviours

-most of what we learn is not from our own experience, but from models

-imitation based on consequences: focus on outcome portrayed

-e.g. what is drinking shown leading to? Good times, silly behaviour, sex? Hangover, dangerous situations, health problems?

-models and antimodels: ought/ought not to follow

-live model (actual person) vs. symbolic model (a person in media; a fictional/constructed character)

Four conditions required for social learning

-paying attention to model (does not happen passively)

-remembering behaviour observed and its consequences

-ability/means to replicate the behaviour

-motivation to replicate the behaviour

-e.g. TV characters engaging in risky behaviours for comedy?

-e.g. video game violence?

-e.g. fashion models?

Parasocial Relationships

-one-sided relationship with someone who does not know us

-celebrities and fans

-TV characters and viewers

-musicians and listeners

-manga/anime characters and 'moe'

-online game characters/personas

-etc.

-bond of intimacy: (feeling of) really knowing the person/character

-realism: believability of characters/personas

-'normality' of their experience given their situations

-privacy: getting to know the characters

-observing not only dramatic acts, but also small, personal, unimportant encounters in their lives

-TV has become increasingly sophisticated in realism/normality: reality shows, mockumentaries

-social networking and multimedia marketing: more ability for intimate encounters than ever

Cultivation Theory

-recall Narrative approach: values shaped by recurring narratives

-long-term effects based on cumulative exposure to a belief or behaviour

-repeated messages about what the real world is like

-usually reinforces dominant beliefs rather than countering

-unmarked arguments

-“thinning of Hollywood”, “brown” video games, violence on TV, acceptance of promiscuity

Media Analysis

-Combine with one of the other perspectives:

-Narrative

-Dramatistic

-Marxist

-Feminist

-What is the medium?

-Media effects: How does the medium itself contribute to the arguments?

-Norms and values: What are we ought/not ought to believe?

-commodification, amplification/reduction, intimacy, realism, cultivation effects

Visual Pleasure Perspective

Visual Pleasure Theory

Images function rhetorically
Strategic use of non-discursive symbols
Systems of meaning which parallel language

Metaphor
Expressing one idea through descriptive parallel to another
Language often works metaphorically

vs. Metonymy
Condensing a complex entity/idea into a single image or symbol
Images communicate metonymically

Semiotics/Semiology
Study of signs

vs. Semantics
Study of words
Discursive

Semiosis - process of meaning; 3 parts

1. Referent: an object or idea (represented by signs)
2. Symbol: sign representing an object
3. Interpretation: meaning of an object or an idea; thought attached to it (by signs)

Three way relationship

Denotation
Property of a symbol that directly attaches it to a referent and interpretation
-e.g. “rhetoric”; “woman” - operate in reference to particular terministic screens

vs. Connotation
Signs carry additional meanings beyond their direct referents and interpretations
-e.g. ideas which are brought to mind in relation to this; norms and theories
-terministic screens themselves brought to mind

Roland Barthes (1915-1980)
Semiology; Aesthetic Pleasure

-any text dealing with complex issues and arguments (e.g. gender, mortality, human nature) is not only about...
a) conscious intentions of the author
-i.e. not all rhetoric is intentional
b) universal wisdom/common sense
-i.e. not all arguments are rational

But unintentional/irrational rhetoric is no less rhetorical (and actually more so)

Authors often 'feign' assumptions and control over language, rationality
-language, thought and rhetoric driven largely by unconscious and social forces, not simple decisions
-our unconscious intentions, assumptions and desires speak through language, whether we realize it or not

Communication: “a universe of quotations without end”

“Language is play”
-child's play
-performance
-exuberant motion

Engaging in signs/communication is an endless game
-possible only because we are there to play it

Language/text is “not alive”
-it comes to life only in this process of conscious and unconscious play

Engaged, critical reading

-we cannot assume values and virtues of society to be neutral and self-evident
-we have to suspend our pre-conceptions in order to critically analyze rhetoric
-we cannot treat language as untouchable and 'living'
-we have to break language apart and play with it to become truly engaged readers

Pleasure Principle (jouissance)

Developed by Barthes, Lacan, Kristeva
A psychological and social limit of pleasure: our level of enjoyment of anything is economized in order to avoid becoming a threat to ourselves and others
Transgressing this limit symbolically (or in reality) creates pleasing tension; “forbidden fruit”

Risque imagery = unconsciously pleasing

Male Gaze: looking pleasurably at female images, both for males and females

Not just passively looking at pictures – consider how they influence our subconscious beliefs

Psychoanalysis
-developed by Sigmund Freud
-study of how the psyche (mind, personality, etc.) is constructed
-continued and modified by many other theorists, including Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, etc.

Jacques Lacan (1901-1981)

Three Orders (of the world/psyche): how the world CAN be seen
-Real, Imaginary, Symbolic

1. Real
= Difference, chaos, universality
-adult, functioning humans do NOT live in a 'real' world

-if we were to see the world as it really is, everything would look like a collection of parts, cells, atoms, waves, events, etc.
-no two of which are the same
-none of which are can in fact be isolated from all other parts
-the same is true of the humans themselves and their unconscious psyche

-so, we have to impose some sort of order (categories, forms, norms, concepts) for it to make sense

2. Imaginary
= Form, unity, coherence

-'primitive' human mode of thinking
-term comes not from 'imagination', but 'image'
-pleasure in unity, autonomy, 'oneness': constructs the Self

-begins at Mirror Stage: when we recognize ourselves in the mirror
-we accept ourselves as an independent, coherent entity and project this on the rest of the world
-seeing the rest of the world as coherent forms, or seeking unity with the rest of the world

-suggested by some (e.g. Kristeva) to be a predominantly feminine mode of thinking
-the 'mirror' is in fact the mother figure, the first person or 'thing' that we see as coherent and with whom we (unconsciously) never want to be separated (autonomy + unity)
-intuitive, emotional, irrational, thought:

-seeing the world as either 'ours' or 'different' – no attempt to categorize
-non-discursive: feelings and images, not concrete meanings, in unique ways
-we all think through the 'imaginary' to some extent, but this is repressed by...

3. Symbolic
= Structure, categorization, socialization
-what most people actually mean by “real world”

-translates forms into discursive meaning, assigns categories to everything in the world
-creates relationships among humans; sets up clear divisions, roles, classes, ideologies
-allows us to articulate thought and meaning, but only through very structured and constrained way that is taught to us: language (as developed by people before us)
-represses difference, desires for unity; estranges from unconscious personality and the 'Real'
-ties all human goals to roles in society: constructs the Other
-all human society, language, institutions are realizations of the Symbolic/Other that we must live with
= hegemonic thinking; theorized by some to be predominantly masculine

But the Symbolic nature of our life cannot completely eliminate Imaginary/Real and unconscious desire

Unconscious desires = “a rhetorical energy” (Lacan)

We want to be like/identify with/possess/become one with various images we encounter

Visual Pleasure

Scopophelia and Narcissism

-Forms of unconscious rhetoric
-Imaginary: play on desires for form, unity, coherence
-But in fact deliver messages that are primarily symbolic:
-norms and expectations
-appropriateness, normality, desirability of behaviours, items, looks etc.
-A way to get around 'the Other'
-making people have an unconscious, personal experience with products and ideas that are not their own

Scopophelia
-love of pleasurable images
-appreciation of sexually-arousing, erotic, fantastic images
-desire to see more of these images, without necessarily acting out the behaviour they suggest

Narcissism
-excessive self-love
-love of images that one can directly identify with
-desire to be like pleasurable images you see
-priviliged perspective

Fetishism and Voyeurism

Fetishism
-pleasure of looking at an object that is satisfying in and of itself
-privileged perspective

Fetish
-an object that is seen as a spectacle to be gazed at
-e.g. objects/people in advertisements are often shown as beautiful for their own sake
=desirable, appropriate, spectacular

Voyeurism
-watching people engage in sexual/deviant acts without them knowing
=deviant, undesirable, abnormal, risky – but seen from a safe, invisible position

Voyeur
-someone who watches others for (sexual) pleasure
-privileged perspective

Summary:

Semiotics
-vs. Semantics
-discursive vs. non-discursive symbols
-Metaphor vs. Metonymy

Semiosis
-Referent, Symbol, Interpretation: three-way relationship
-Denotation vs. Connotation

Barthes, Lacan
-Psychoanalysis
-Unconscious rhetoric: desires
-Pleasure principle; play
-Real, Imaginary, Symbolic
-Mirror Stage; The Other

Visual Pleasure
-Scopophelia
-Narcissism
-Fetishism
-Voyeurism

Journal 3 Assignment

(Option 1)
Choose a popular media artifact that you have NOT worked with yet
(either in one of your previous journals, or for your final paper).
Examine it using any rhetorical perspective(s) we've studied so far.

OR

(Option 2)

Propose an artifact for our class to analyze in one of the upcoming workshops
-make a persuasive argument for why you think it would be useful. Use
some of the techniques we learned
-provide a clear reference (so I could check the artifact myself)
-keep the situation in audience in mind!
The artifacts WILL be used if you make a good argument for these (and
we have time!)
(but you will only be evaluated on the way you propose the artifact,
not the quality of the artifact or whether we end up looking at it)

Consider the following options
-One of the ideas that you came up with for your first journal (but
did not use for your final paper)
-A favourite song or music video
-An advertisement
-A TV character
-A news story
etc.

As always, an informal paper; aim for ~500 words (more is fine)

Due Friday, March 9th

Functional Perspective

Linguistics and Functional Grammar

Linguistic perspective
-study of the workings of language as a system
-syntax, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, phonology, phonetics, etc.
Relevance to rhetoric?
-rhetorical arguments made through language
-“language speaks through speakers” (Burke)

Grammar
-syntax (structure and order of sentences/clauses/phrases)
-inflection morphology (structure of words relating to their role in phrases)

-All language follows grammar

-All communication follows patterns

Prescriptive Grammar
-Rules to follow
-Is the language used correct or incorrect?
-Used in formal education

Descriptive Grammar
-Observations to make
-Is the language used functional or not functional?
-Used in linguistics research

Formal Grammar
-Prescriptive, used extensively in education
-Parts of speech and rules
-e.g. verb, noun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction etc.
-e.g. subject, verb, direct and indirect object, qualifier, etc.
-e.g. don't end sentence with a preposition

-No formal English grammar existed until late 16^th century
-No widespread standards of English grammar until late 18^th century
-e.g. Shakespeare “ungrammatical”
-Emerged from increased demand for education for urban middle class
-reflects dominant norms in some sense
-But how else can we effectively teach grammar?
-universal rules necessary and facilitate education, business, politics, socialization

Grammar: a set of rules for how to express yourself correctly and clearly

Generative Grammar

Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)
-American linguist, political activist
-'father' of modern linguistics

Language as a brain structure
-we must be born with not only capacity for language, but a built-in system of principles
-children learn language rapidly by simply listening
-even languages without any formal grammar are remarkably systematic
-although features in languages are different (and even backwards) from each other, the underlying logic of all languages is identical

(Chomskian) Linguistics
-branch of psychology, closely tied to biology (of the brain)
-looks for universal language principles and examines how they are realized in actual use
-descriptive
-sees all functioning languages and dialects as equal
-sees social conditions as determining how we realize our language potential (but not the potential itself)
-has little to say about rhetoric as such, but suggests that all people are equally disposed to being persuaded through communication

Grammar: hidden brain structure responsible for all language(s)

Functional Grammar
Michael Halliday (b. 1925)
-British linguist
-systemic functional grammar

Language as a social structure
-language may be built into us, but more importantly...
-language shapes and is shaped by the role it performs in society: “eco-social”
-language is always used for a reason; we only have grammatical categories because we need them to accomplish communicative goals: “functional”
-language in all its parts is a system of choice (just like terministic screens)
-we choose to say some things and not others; we choose to structure our words in some ways and not others
-languages are organized by necessity, convenience and power: “systemic”
-the systems of language parallel other systems in society: economic and political power; moral and social norms
-all language is rhetorical in its origin; if we did not need other people to act or respond, we would not have language at all

Grammar: system of choices made for social and rhetorical reasons

-Functional grammar less interested in what grammar is (e.g. a set of rules, or a brain structure) and more in what it does (e.g. not nouns, verbs, adjectives but participants, processes, circumstances)

Systemic Functional Grammar

All communication accomplishes three functions:

Ideational
-language is always 'about' something
-language refers to content: real world or imaginary ideas
-any language is ultimately a reflection of the world its speakers live in

Realized in grammar by
-transitivity
-processes, participants, circumstances

Interpersonal
-language always reflects attitudes
-language refers to norms, expectations of any situation
-language establishes/confirms relationships between speakers and listeners

Realized in grammar by
-mood
-modality

Textual
-language is always structured
-language doesn't come in isolated sentences, but as part of larger ongoing communication
-language makes sense because we are all part of that ongoing communication

Realized in grammar by
-thematic structure
-patterns of reference
-(many other structures; not discussed)

Analyzing Grammar

Transitivity
-in traditional grammar: subject, verb, object (direct or indirect), qualifiers, etc.
-in functional grammar: processes, participants, circumstances

e.g. John brought the book home on monday

-John (subject) brought (verb) the book (direct object) home (indirect object) on monday (prepositional phrase)

-John (participant: actor) brought (process: material) the book (participant: goal) home (circumstance: location) on monday (circumstance: time)

Textual Meaning: Theme

Theme is the topic of a sentence
-the element that readers' attention is drawn to, by default or by design
-what the sentence is 'about'
-in English, the theme is always at the start of sentences

Two types of theme:

Unmarked
-if the sentence starts with the subject, then subject = theme
-the 'default' option in English – does not draw too much attention to the theme, easy to read

-e.g. John went to school (this sentence is about John)
-e.g. Terrorists attacked the soldiers (this sentence is about terrorists)

-if the sentence is passive, then object (which in passive sentences comes before the verb) = theme

-e.g. The soldiers were attacked by terrorists (this sentence is about soldiers)

Marked

-if the sentence starts with something other than subject or passive object, then everything before subject = theme
-topicalization – emphasizing something other than the normal subject of the sentence, draws attention strategically
-alerts the reader that something is unusual or important about the element brought to the front

-e.g. As for the soldiers, they were attacked by terrorists (the sentence emphasizes soldiers)
-e.g. However much you try, you will not get it (the sentence emphasizes 'however much you try' = futility)
-e.g. In the afternoon, I went to the library (the sentence emphasizes the time as the most important information)

Rheme
-everything else in a sentence besides the theme
-if theme is the topic of the sentence, then rheme is additional information that the sentence wants you to learn about the theme

-e.g. John went to school (sentence is about John; we learn that John went to school)
-e.g. Terrorists attacked the soldiers (sentence about terrorists; we learn that they attacked the soldiers)
-e.g. The soldiers were attacked by terrorists (sentence is about soldiers; we learn that they were attacked by terrorists)
-e.g. In the afternoon, I went to the library (sentence is about the events of the afternoon; we learn that I went to the library)

Themes at higher levels

Paragraph
-topic sentence = theme

Song
-chorus = theme

Essay
-introduction = theme

Picture
-most visible element=theme

etc.

Theme and Rhetoric
-since theme determines what the sentence/paragraph/story/artifact/picture is about...
-choice of theme can be used to focus or divert the audience's attention
-choice of theme can affect interpretation of text
-choice of theme can be used to assign blame or present facts as taken-for-granted (through unmarked themes)
-choice of theme can be used to hide responsibility for actions (through unmarked passive themes or topicalized circumstances)
-choice of theme can set the terms of debate (if the theme says the argument is about x, responses to the argument will also be about x, not y)
-choice of theme can create false expectations and 'softly' deliver messages (the theme states that the artifact is about x, but the rest of the artifact is actually completely about y)

Ideational Meaning

Processes
-words/phrases that indicate what's happening
-realized by verbs/verb phrases
-carried out by participants, or take place on their own

Participants
-words/phrases indicate who is involved in the events happening
-realized by nouns/noun phrases
-cause and carry out processes, are affected by processes

Circumstances
-words/phrases that indicate where, when, how, etc.
-realized by prepositional and adverb phrases, qualifiers
-describe the context in which processes take place

Process Types:

1. Material: actions that change the world in some concrete manner
-e.g. do, bring, walk, arrive, kill, fix, create, etc.
-because these can only take place in the material world, they must be caused by something/someone, take place in some sort of circumstances and affect the state of affairs
-always has actual, implied or assumed participants and circumstances

Participants of Material Processes
Actor/Agent: the person/entity causing/carrying out the material process
Recepient: the person/entity being affected/changed by the material process
Goal: the person/entity for which the action was carried out

Rhetorical Examples:
-Aircraft struck targets in Libya tonight
-American bombers attacked the city from the air
-Civilians were killed in the raid
-Terrorists attacked allied soldiers
-Freedom fighters defended their country

2. Mental: processes that involve no material actions – thoughts or perceptions
-e.g. think, see, hear, feel, imagine, consider, invent, etc.
-only sentient beings can think or perceive (whether actual or believed, e.g. humans, God, aliens, computers, dogs)
-mental processes are always assumed to be conscious; usualy intentional

Participants of Mental Processes
Senser: the person/entity thinking or sensing something
Phenomenon: relating to senses – the thing being observed or perceived
Goal: relating to thinking – the thing being thought about

Rhetorical examples:
-Terrorists planned their attack
-The air strikes were planned in advance
-The allies thought about helping the freedom fighters
-I saw the person in front of me get killed
-Collateral damage was observed

3. Behavioural: processes of habitually doing something
-e.g. behave, carry out, act on, engage, commit, deploy
-Behavioural processes are in a 'grey area' between material and mental
-only sentient beings can engage in behaviour
-however behaviour is things that are taken-for-granted/normal: not necessarily done by will
-associated with actions that are normal, expected, prescribed, routine

Participants of Behavioural Processes
Behaver: who is engaging in behaviour
Behaviour: what behaviour is being engaged in

Rhetorical examples:
-Terrorists carried out their plans
-Airplanes engaged in combat
-I acted on my suspicions
-I was not able to fulfill my wishes

4. Verbal: processes of communicating
-e.g. say, write, speak, relate, state, explain
-only sentient beings can communicate
-messages are often taken as proof of intention
-the power to speak requires authority, or breaking a rule to speak when not asked to
-speaking always brings to question credibility: is the source trustworthy and well-intentioned?

Participants of Verbal Processes
Sayer: who is communicating
Verbiage: what is being communicated

Rhetorical examples:
-Terrorists claimed that they will attack America
-The president stated that he had reliable information
-I said that this simply wasn't true
-He argued about it

5. Relational: processes of being/having something
-e.g. be, have, possess, belong, exist
-state existence of something
OR
-identify the parts or attributes of something
OR
-give some sort of value or ownership rights to something/someone over something else

Participants of Relational Processes
Existent: something which exists
OR
Carrier: something that has a particular quality
Attribute: the quality possessed by something
OR
Token: something which possesses another thing or value
Value: the thing or value being possessed

Rhetorical Examples:
-Terrorists are out there
-We are not cowards
-This land is ours
-We must be right
-Freedom is not free

Processes, Participants and Rhetoric

Processes: What is taking place?
-is it actions (material) or abstract/sensory events (mental, verbal, relational)?
-is it one-off occurences or taken-for-granted routines (behavioural)?
-are the verbs chosen to describe processes neutral, or loaded with evaluations?
-good, bad, or neutral?
-are the neutralizations or evaluations of processes strategic?
-are the processes intentional or unintentional?

Who/what are the participants?
-are they human or non-human? Are they conscious and responsible?
-are they specific (real, individual people/things) or distributed ('people', entities)?
-are they “I”, “you”, “we”? (deceptively vague!)
-are they real (material, observable) or abstract (theoretical, imagined)?
-are they passive or active?
-are they men or women?
-are they powerful or disempowered?
-are they presented neutrally or with evaluations?
-good, bad, or neutral?

Interpersonal Meaning

Mood

What type of sentence is it? What is its intention?

1. Declarative
-statements
-most common type of sentence
-presents information as matter-of-fact – factual, but not emphasized
-central to appeal through logos – facts must be declared in order to be trusted
-neutral in regard to power relationships, except giving speaker a role as information-provider

For example:
John went to school.
Freedom is not free.
The president stated that he had reliable information.

2. Imperative
-command
-requests action from the audience in response
-central to establishing ethos and power
-speaker assumes authority – must have some power over listeners to give commands or make suggestions for action

For example:
Go to school.
Defend your freedom.
Listen to what I have to say.

3. Exclamative
-exclamation
-emphasizes information or underlines urgency
-can be used for conveying pathos, or adding element of pathos to logos
-speaker presented as emotionally-engaged – can be a good or bad thing

For example:
I won't go to school!
We must stand up and fight!
They will not stop us!

4. Interrogative
-question
-engages the audience, assumes an answer or response
-can be used to request information or imply a pre-existing answer
-speaker assumes less authority and initiative than audience – implies audience responsibility

For example:
Will you go to school?
Will you fight for freedom?
Will you listen to what I have to say?

Choice of mood
-important to effectiveness of argument
-frequency of non-declarative sentences often indicates highly rhetorical texts
-can be used to implicitly establish authority of speaker, or responsibility of audience

Modality

1) Modal verbs: could, should, might, will, may, etc.

2) Modal adverbs: possibly, definitely, unlikely, certainly, etc.

Sentences can be unmodalized (normal) or modalized (marked)
Highly modalized sentences usually indicate highly rhetorical texts

Can be HIGH or LOW
e.g. will vs. might; must vs. should; definitely vs. maybe

Types of Modality

1. Certainty
This must happen
I can't do it
They will not stop us

2. Usuality
This always happens
I am usually right
This shouldn't be happening

3. Possibility
This might happen
I should be able to do it
They may try to stop us

4. Obligation
I must do this
You shouldn't do it
We must defend our freedom

5. Inclination
I might do it
Why would you do that?
They couldn't be bothered

Choices of Modality
-used to establish evaluations and relationships between speaker and audience
-used to emphasize or divert conscious choice and responsibility
-can be used to seek consideration for even poorly-supported facts

Summary: Linguistic Analysis

Ideational

-Transitivity: Processes, Participants, Circumstances

Interpersonal

-Mood, Modality

Textual

-Theme/Rheme

However, this does not only apply to grammar (of language!)

Theme: Salience

What stands out in an image?

What is (meant to be) seen first?

Visual marking

Unmarked: subject of an image (by default)

Does not specifically stand out; simply there

Marked: unusual, striking element

Exaggarated colour, size, shape

Marked through contrast, clarity, sharpness

Unusual subject (appears out of place)

Angle/Perspective

Privileged vs. Unprivileged

We are used to seeing the world from eye level

We are used to seeing media in coherent ‘windows’

Deviations from these norms are often strategic

Politics of height: who occupies top-floor offices?

Politics of angle: widescreen cinematics

Politics of speed/information: we cannot be everywhere at once (or can we?)

Politics of distance:

close = friendly OR impressive/threatening;

distant = distant, foreign, not important

Priviliged Perspectives: suggest power over the subject/content of the image

High angle

Wide perspective

Information at-a-glance

View from places we wouldn’t normally be

Disadvantaged Perspectives: suggest that the subject/content of the image is powerful or threatening

Low angle

Limited (or confined) perspective

Incoherent/unexplained content

Vs. Ordinary perspective (eye level, ordinary, medium angle, coherent but without explanations)

Male Gaze – a type of privileged perspective

Maps – a type of privileged, safe perspective

Monuments – a type of strategically unprivileged perspective (meant to be seen from below)

Video games – often used privileged perspectives (strategy, cinematics) and disadvantaged perspectives (horror, realism) for strategic effect

Images can articulate a number of modalities for strategic effect

Similar to modals in language (obligation, usuality, inclination, etc.)

Colour (saturation, variety), contrast/brightness, sharpness, focus, texture, detail, etc.

Similar to ‘Illusion of Life’

Emotional/sensory (rather than discursive) content

Can suggest Intensity/Release patterns

Relative – varies by situation and genre

Levels of Articulation

(1) Low Articulation

Suggests bleak, colourless, uninteresting images

Emphasizes distance, otherness, release

(2) Naturalistic Images

‘Realistic’ look – attempts to look normal

Suggests taken-for-granted imagery, ordinariness

(3) High Articulation

Sharp, colourful, stylized images

Suggests positive impressions, aesthetic value

(4) Excessive Articulation

Jarring, extreme images; suggests intensity

Participants

Simple enough – entities shown acting in images

Who are the participants?

How are they portrayed?

Circumstances

Background

Peripheral entities, not involved in actions

Rich vs. sparse backgrounds: strategic?

Busy backgrounds can deemphasize actions, participants (e.g. Where’s Waldo?)

Sparse backgrounds draw attention away from context, towards actions/participants

Processes

What is taking place in the image?

Causes, progress, results

Shown or implied?

Processes (especially Material) have all three

But often only parts of these are show

Vectors

Graphic or implicit lines/shapes that direct the viewer’s gaze

Indicate direction, order, causality

Can be used to suggest processes in static images

Diagrams and signs

Labeled or symbolic

Realistic imagery

Pointing

Direction of movement (real or implied)

Shapes and angles (sharp angles point)

Comics

Speech bubbles = verbal processes

Thought bubbles = mental processes

Sound effects, lines = material processes

Summary: Functional Analysis

Ideational Meaning

-Transitivity: Processes, Participants, Circumstances

In visuals: Vectors

Interpersonal Meaning

-Mood, Modality

In visuals: Perspective, Modality

Textual Meaning

-Theme/Rheme

Communication as choice

Why is something expressed one way and not other?

Choices and communicative devices exist for purposes

What is present/expressed in communication?

What is absent/implied?

Look for patterns

Choices can be incidental to medium used

Or, choices can be strategic

Describe patterns systematically