Media Effects Theory

Media Effects Theory

Research on unique influence of various media on rhetoric

-not a unified field of theory

-rhetoric of cinema

-rhetoric of print

-rhetoric of internet

-rhetoric of video games

etc.

-not very practical on its own, but combines well with other types of analysis

Media choices vs. audience beliefs/norms

-dialectic relationship: both influence each other

-different rhetorical strategies to deliver same messages: communication as choice

-why are particular media types chosen?

-how does the media type itself fit into popular culture?

Media effects:

-media logic

-social learning theory

-parasocial relationships

-cultivation theory

Marshal McLuhan (1911-1980)

Canadian rhetorician and philosopher

“The medium is the message” (1964)

-media usually carry content

-but no content required to have a rhetorical/creative effect

-for example: electricity is a medium; it can carry messages (e.g. network signals) or simply energy

-a lightbulb: uses electricity; itself is a medium without a message

-however it still radically changes our life: lightbulbs create environments, allow certain activities to conveniently take place at night

-can also carry messages in some cases – e.g. a signal lamp

-TV: comes with content, delivers rhetoric

-however, the very presence of TV is perhaps more important than any specific messages on it

-defines our home environments, places information and entertainment at the dinner table

-internet/social media: a lot of (fairly useless) content, but the capacity for anyone to post anything at any time is extremely significant

Media logic

-the degree to which the audience takes the medium for granted

-taken-for-granted media permits a degree higher degree of influence

-unmarked messages don't raise alarm, allow for easy discussion

-Altheide and Snow (1979): TV is the dominant medium

-obviously, things have changed since: multimedia society; digital society

-computers, phones, mp3 players; social networking, youtube, blogging, gaming

-recent inventions; but largely taken for granted

-old technology:

-rotary phones

-black-and-white TV

-tape-operated computers

-answering machines

-what do we notice about the world in media that we're exposed to?

-normal vs. abnormal, right vs. wrong, desirable vs. undesirable, modern vs. obsolete

-marked vs. unmarked: tech we expect to see vs. silly/outdated technology

Commodification

-advertisement blending with programming

-includes product placement (perhaps the most typical method of commodification)

-TV/radio commodified from the beginning: commercials

-old TV: few channels, no product placement = long ads during breaks

-new TV: many channels = shorter ads, more breaks, more product placement

-ads blending with programming: ads often no longer about the products; ads themselves turned into a form of entertainment

-ads and norms: product placement and stylized ads portray products and situations as desirable/taken-for-granted:

-apparel, products, hairstyles, behaviours

Amplification and Reduction

-What is shown and what is not shown

-Reality: advertisement budgets support media

-TV industry competes for viewers/ratings; magazines compete for subscriptions

-as a result, features on TV and in magazines such as the news stories may vary

-not a complete story: some things are shown (amplified), others are avoided (reduced)

-news stories: war

-entertainment: radio play; TV show cancellations

-normal, good, right: media and market values

-what sells?

-ideal vs. undesirable: gender and body norms

-portrayals of “non-ideal” characters on TV – body types, sexuality

Social Learning Theory

-Bandura (1977) – a controversial theory that links media exposure to development of behaviours

-most of what we learn is not from our own experience, but from models

-imitation based on consequences: focus on outcome portrayed

-e.g. what is drinking shown leading to? Good times, silly behaviour, sex? Hangover, dangerous situations, health problems?

-models and antimodels: ought/ought not to follow

-live model (actual person) vs. symbolic model (a person in media; a fictional/constructed character)

Four conditions required for social learning

-paying attention to model (does not happen passively)

-remembering behaviour observed and its consequences

-ability/means to replicate the behaviour

-motivation to replicate the behaviour

-e.g. TV characters engaging in risky behaviours for comedy?

-e.g. video game violence?

-e.g. fashion models?

Parasocial Relationships

-one-sided relationship with someone who does not know us

-celebrities and fans

-TV characters and viewers

-musicians and listeners

-manga/anime characters and 'moe'

-online game characters/personas

-etc.

-bond of intimacy: (feeling of) really knowing the person/character

-realism: believability of characters/personas

-'normality' of their experience given their situations

-privacy: getting to know the characters

-observing not only dramatic acts, but also small, personal, unimportant encounters in their lives

-TV has become increasingly sophisticated in realism/normality: reality shows, mockumentaries

-social networking and multimedia marketing: more ability for intimate encounters than ever

Cultivation Theory

-recall Narrative approach: values shaped by recurring narratives

-long-term effects based on cumulative exposure to a belief or behaviour

-repeated messages about what the real world is like

-usually reinforces dominant beliefs rather than countering

-unmarked arguments

-“thinning of Hollywood”, “brown” video games, violence on TV, acceptance of promiscuity

Media Analysis

-Combine with one of the other perspectives:

-Narrative

-Dramatistic

-Marxist

-Feminist

-What is the medium?

-Media effects: How does the medium itself contribute to the arguments?

-Norms and values: What are we ought/not ought to believe?

-commodification, amplification/reduction, intimacy, realism, cultivation effects