Today's Class
-Classical Rhetoric
-Ancient Greece (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle)
-Rhetorical Appeals
Perspective
-Western/Eurocentric
-This does not mean that scholars elsewhere did not write about the art of speaking and arguing – rich traditions exist elsewhere
-Cultures outside the Western (Greek, Roman and Christian) tradition have contributed to Western knowledge as well (e.g. we owe much to Islamic scholars of the Middle Ages in preserving Greek philosophy)
-However in the interest of keeping to English argument structure, we'll stick to Western theory and history of rhetoric
Rhetoric in Ancient Greece
-Art of public speaking
-Was not associated with writing
-Resulted largely from the political system
-Large public meetings where speaking loudly, clearly, expressively and briefly was crucial
-Involved very little writing, and required a lot of on-the-spot thinking and decision-making
-All (male) citizens were not only able, but obliged to participate in political process
-Taught by Sophists
-Traveling intellectuals that made a living by going between Greek city-states and teaching science, art, philosophy as well as rhetoric, in public as well as private seminars
-Many of them became famous and highly sought-after – intellectual celebrities of their day (e.g. Pythagoras)
-Rhetor: the speaker; a master of the art of rhetoric
vs.
-Rhetorician: the student of rhetoric; a master of the study of rhetoric
Socrates
-Athenian philosopher, 469–399 BC
-Socrates challenged and criticized the Sophists, who presented themselves as experts and teachers of great knowledge and virtue in exchange for money
-Alleged to have accepted no fee for his lectures, and professed having no wisdom (except the truth of knowing nothing), and was a masterful debater who took apart the ideas and assumptions of the most capable minds of his age
-Sentenced to death for questioning the official religion (and challenging the governing authorities)
-Central to Western thought and philosophy
Socratic problem
-Socrates never wrote down any of his teachings, and dissuaded others from doing so
-All we know about Socrates comes from others' writings, the majority of it from his student Plato
-But Plato and his other students had agendas of their own – so what we know about Socrates' views and philosophy may be different from what he really said
-Ultimately, we cannot say with 100% certainty what Socrates really believed (Socratic Problem)
Socratic Method
-A method of dialogue, debate between two individuals or viewpoint (aka Dialectic)
-Used for examining assumptions and questioning values, particularly those poorly defined (e.g. virtue, morality, wisdom)
-Takes two opposing perspectives
-Thesis and Antithesis (e.g. wisdom is a good thing vs. wisdom only causes trouble)
-Examines one against the other (pros, cons, clashing definitions)
-Emerges with a Synthesis that balances (but also often undermines) both sides
-Often results in Aporia – a state of mental confusion and actually realizing that you cannot state your beliefs with such certainty (e.g. wisdom is neither a good nor a bad thing, but more importantly, can we ever say for sure what it means to be wise if the real wise man knows only that he knows nothing?)
-Plato's Dialogues (a series of works which allegedly document conversations between Socrates and other wise men of his time) show Socrates employing this method to undermine assumptions and often implicitly ridicule the true ignorance of even the most educated people
Plato
-Athenian philosopher, 424-347 BC
-Student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle
-His most famous writings are about Socrates
-Derided Sophists as those who use their rhetorical skill and intelligence to deceive other people and ensure a good living for themselves
-Rhetoric as art of deceit
-Having to use rhetoric is inevitable, but we should avoid it as much as we can
-Even the best-composed argument is merely a convoluted reflection of truth and virtue – so better to seek truth and virtue more directly...
Forms and Virtues
-Plato believed in eternal, metaphysical truth of forms
-Everything in the world is merely a reflection of the true, abstract, unchangeable forms or principles
-We can only perceive these forms indirectly and through a very limited perspective through being human
-However by observing the world methodically and without bias or agenda, we can draw out principles by which truth works, and apply those principles to elevating human life
-Virtues
-Qualities of moral being
-Should be promoted as basis for healthy individual and collective life
-Ethics (morality and righteousness in life) vs. Aesthetics (creativity and balance in art)
-Plato saw both as related and flowing from the same source
-Main classical virtues (as per Plato): temperance, prudence, courage, justice
Rhetoric
-For Plato, rhetoric (and language in general) is merely a flawed way of trying to persuade people (in their fallen, un-virtuous state) to become virtuous, and should be avoided wherever possible
-Words that are written down are merely a bad copy of the real process of thought or conversation – they convey only the shape of what was thought or said, but none of the real process of understanding (which requires 'being there' to happen – language can't get you 'there')
-Ironically, this is why the Socratic Problem is such a problem!
-If you think Plato is harsh on Rhetoric, you should see what he has to say about poetry & art!
-Plato thought that education and society should avoid deceptive rhetoric and art in favour of straightforward and well-reasoned philosophy
-Republic
-Long work defining the organization and nature of the virtuous, functional state and virtual, functional man
-Socrates is the 'protagonist' of the work and outlines the ideal Republic in philosophical debates with foremost minds of his day
-Achieved through reason, not rhetoric
Aristotle
-Athenian philosopher, 384-322BC
-Student of Plato, teacher of Alexander the Great
-Founder of formal disciplines and sciences that continue to shape knowledge today
-First to define a comprehensive Western scientific method and philosophical system (i.e. a complete understanding of how the world works and how it can be known)
-Classical education based on this system
-Rhetoric as part of this education
-Rhetoric
-Unlike Plato, saw it as neither good nor evil, but productive when used correctly
-An art to be mastered, a study to be systematized
-Good rhetoric reflects classical ethical and aesthetic virtues
Aristotelian Rhetoric
-Means of Persuasion
-Logos, Pathos, Ethos
-Rhetorical genres
-Structures
-Rhetorical topics, themes and situations
-Understanding your subject and audience
-Kairos
-Style, grammar, presentation
Means of Persuasion
Three Appeals:
Logos:
-Logic, reason, facts
-Persuading your audience by presenting ideas based on facts, numbers, 'hard' science
-Good, easy-to-follow line of logic – common sense or well-explained
-Good structure of speech and clear, straightforward language
Pathos
-Emotion, feeling, drama
-Persuading your audience by strong emotional language and powerful emotion
-Tapping into the audience's concerns, fears, sympathies, emotional needs
-Engaging, confident, expressive delivery
-Captivating language and dramatic structure
Ethos
-Ethics, credibility, values, sources
-Persuading your audience by appealing to your (and your arguments') credibility and virtue
-Tapping into shared values, common ideas, similar experienced, equal standing (I am one of you!) or authority (I am a great, accomplished person!)
-Appealing to authority bestowed on you (and your argument) by outside powers – science, God(s), people's trust, luck, talent
-Presenting yourself as likeable, admirable, interesting, serious, trustworthy
Kairos (Not one of the three main appeals, but a crucial principle!)
-Timeliness, 'The Moment of Truth' – the right argument at the right moment can make great difference
-Knowing your audience beforehand – what they want to hear, what they are likely to respond to, when they want to hear it
-Choosing the right occasion to present your topic / right topic for the occasion
-Structuring the length and key points of your speech for maximum impact
Structure and style
-Tone and register
-The way you might make a point to your friends and to your political opponents is completely different, and so is the language you would use
-Mastery of kinds of language appropriate to intellectual debate and political meetings crucial to making a difference
-Developing vocabulary and grammar to be taken seriously
-Eloquent and complex arguments, or extremely emotional and poetic language, will not always help make your point
-Study the style of others' arguments to make more effective arguments yourself!
Structure
-Clear organization
-Good models
-Classic 3-point model (used as basis for 5-paragraph essay):
-Thesis (your main point/argument)
-Supporting argument 1 (2nd strongest)
-Supporting argument 2 (weakest)
-Supporting argument 3 (strongest)
-Thesis restated
-Dialectic (based on Socratic Method)
-Thesis ('pro'/main point/argument/assumption)
-Antithesis ('con'/the opposite perspective/argument challenging your thesis or assumption)
-Synthesis (balancing thesis and antithesis)
-Can also be used to test a thesis and either effectively show how it withstands criticism or how it's indefensible and should be modified
Next class:
-Ancient Rome: Cicero
-Neoclassical Education
-Modern Rhetoric
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